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A markup language provides a way to combine a text and extra information about
the text. The extra information, including structure, layout, or other
information, is expressed using markup, which is typically intermingled with the
primary text. The best-known markup language in modern use is HTML (HyperText
Markup Language), one of the foundations of the World Wide Web. Originally
markup was used in the publishing industry in the communication of printed work
between authors, editors, and printers.
Classes of markup languages
Markup languages are often divided into three classes: presentational,
procedural, and descriptive.
Presentational markup
Presentational markup is an attempt to infer document structure from cues in the
encoding. For example, in a text file, the title of a document might be preceded
by several newlines and/or spaces, thus suggesting leading spacing and
centering. Word-processing and desktop publishing products sometimes attempt to
deduce structure from such conventions.
Procedural markup
Procedural markup is typically also focused on the presentation of text, but is
usually visible to the user editing the text file, and is expected to be
interpreted by software in the order in which it appears. For example, to format
title text to appear large, boldface and centered, a succession of formatting
directives would be inserted into the file immediately before the title's text,
instructing software to switch into centered display mode, then enlarge and
embolden the typeface. The title text would be followed by directives to reverse
these effects; in more advanced systems macros or a stack model make this less
tedious. In most cases, the procedural markup capabilities comprise a
Turing-complete programming language. Examples of procedural-markup systems
include nroff, troff, TeX and Lout. Procedural markup has been widely used in
professional publishing applications, where professional typographers can be
expected to learn the languages required.
Descriptive markup
Descriptive markup or semantic markup applies labels to fragments of text
without necessarily mandating any particular display or other processing
semantics. For example, the Atom syndication language provides markup to label
the updated time-stamp, which is an assertion from the publisher as to when some
item of information was last changed. While the Atom specification discusses the
meaning of the updated timestamp, and specifies the markup used to identify it,
it makes no assertions about whether or how it might be presented to a user.
Software might put this markup to a variety of uses, including many not foreseen
by the designers of the Atom language. SGML and XML are systems explicitly
designed to support the design of descriptive markup languages.
In practice, the classes of markup usually co-occur in any given system. For
example, HTML contains markup elements which are purely procedural (for example
B for bold) and others which are purely descriptive (BLOCKQUOTE, or the HREF=
attribute). HTML also includes the PRE element, which encloses areas of
presentational markup to be laid out exactly as typed.
Sets of markup elements and rules for their use are commonly developed by
standards bodies to support the kinds of documents used in particular industries
or communities. One of the earliest of these was CALS, used by the US military
for technical manuals. Industries with large-scale documentation requirements
soon followed suit, developing tag-sets for aircraft, telecommunications,
automotive, and computer hardware manuals. This led to delivering many such
manuals solely in electronic form; some companies were able to produce printed,
online, and CD-based manuals all from a single (descriptive markup) source. A
notable example was Sun Microsystems, where Jon Bosak (who later founded the XML
committee) decided on SGML for multi-target documentation delivery, achieving
considerable cost savings.
Markup languages now abound; among the more widely known are XHTML, DocBook,
MathML, SVG, Open eBook, TEI, and XBRL. Many are for various kinds of text
documents, but specialized languages are used in many other domains.
Generic markup is another term for descriptive markup. Most modern descriptive
markup systems structure documents into trees, while also providing some means
for embedding cross-references. Because of this, documents can be readily
treated as databases, in which the database system is aware of the structure
(not "blobs" as in the past). Because they do not have such strict schemas as
relational databases, however, they are commonly called semi-structured
databases.
For many years, great interest has arisen in document structures that are not
trees. For example, ancient and sacred literature commonly has a rhetorical or
prose structure (stories, pericopes, paragraphs, and so on), as well as a
reference structure (books, chapters, verses, lines). Since the boundaries of
these units often cross, they cannot readily be encoded using tree-structured
markup systems. Among the document modeling systems that support such structures
are MECS (developed for encoding the works of Wittgenstein), aspects of the TEI
Guidelines, LMNL, and CLIX.
A primary virtue of descriptive markup is considered to be its flexibility: if
the fragments of text are labeled as to "what they are" as opposed to "how they
should be displayed", software may be written to process these fragments in
useful ways not anticipated by the designers of the languages. For example,
HTML's hyperlinks, originally designed for activation by a human following a
link, are also widely used by Web search engines both in discovering new
material to index and in estimating the popularity of Web resources.
Descriptive markup also facilitates the simpler task of reformatting a document
as needed, because the format specification is not intertwined with the content.
For example, italics might be used both for emphasis, and to indicate foreign
words. However, if both are merely tagged (presentationally or procedurally) as
italic, this ambiguity cannot readily be sorted out. If a decision is later made
not to italicize foreign words, there is nothing for it but to review all italic
portions and sort them out one by one. However, if the two cases were
(descriptively or generically) tagged differently to begin with, either can be
reformatted without interfering with the other.
History
The term markup is derived from the traditional publishing practice of "marking
up" a manuscript, that is, adding symbolic printer's instructions in the margins
of a paper manuscript. For centuries, this task was done by specialists known as
"markup men" and proofreaders who marked up text to indicate what typeface,
style, and size should be applied to each part, and then handed off the
manuscript to someone else for the tedious task of typesetting by hand. A
familiar example of manual markup symbols still in use is proofreader's marks,
which are a subset of larger vocabularies of handwritten markup symbols.
GenCode
The idea of markup languages was apparently first presented by publishing
executive William W. Tunnicliffe at a conference in 1967, although he preferred
to call it "generic coding." Tunnicliffe would later lead the development of a
standard called GenCode for the publishing industry. Book designer Stanley Fish
also published speculation along similar lines in the late 1960s. Brian Reid, in
his 1980 dissertation at Carnegie Mellon University, developed the theory and a
working implementation of descriptive markup in actual use. However, IBM
researcher Charles Goldfarb is more commonly seen today as the "father" of
markup languages, because of his work on IBM GML, and then as chair of the
International Organization for Standardization committee that developed SGML,
the first widely used descriptive markup system. Goldfarb hit upon the basic
idea while working on an early project to help a newspaper computerize its
workflow, although the published record does not clarify when. He later became
familiar with the work of Tunnicliffe and Fish, and heard an early talk by Reid
which further sparked his interest.
It must be noted that the details of the early history of descriptive markup
languages are hotly debated. However, it is clear that the notion was
independently discovered several times throughout the 70s (and possibly the late
60s), and became an important practice in the late 80s.
Some early examples of markup languages available outside the publishing
industry can be found in typesetting tools on Unix systems such as troff and
nroff. In these systems, formatting commands were inserted into the document
text so that typesetting software could format the text according to the
editor's specifications. It was a trial and error iterative process to get a
document printed correctly. Availability of WYSIWYG ("what you see is what you
get") publishing software supplanted much use of these languages among casual
users, though serious publishing work still uses markup to specify the
non-visual structure of texts.
TeX
Another major publishing standard is TeX, created and continuously refined by
Donald Knuth in the 1970s and 80s. TeX concentrated on detailed layout of text
and font descriptions in order to typeset mathematical books in professional
quality. This required Knuth to spend considerable time investigating the art of
typesetting. However, TeX requires considerable skill from the user, so that it
is mainly used in academia, where it is a de-facto standard in many scientific
disciplines. A TeX macro package known as LaTeX provides a descriptive markup
system on top of TeX, and is widely used.
Scribe, GML and SGML
Main articles: IBM Generalized Markup Language and Standard Generalized Markup
Language
The first language to make a clear and clean distinction between structure and
presentation was certainly Scribe, developed by Brian Reid and described in his
doctoral thesis in 1980. Scribe was revolutionary in a number of ways, not least
that it introduced the idea of styles separated from the marked up document, and
of a grammar controlling the usage of descriptive elements. Scribe influenced
the development of Generalized Markup Language (later SGML) and is a direct
ancestor to HTML and LaTeX.
In the early 1980s, the idea that markup should be focused on the structural
aspects of a document and leave the visual presentation of that structure to the
interpreter led to the creation of SGML. The language was developed by a
committee chaired by Goldfarb. It incorporated ideas from many different
sources, including Tunnicliffe's project, GenCode. Sharon Adler, Anders
Berglund, and James D. Mason were also key members of the SGML committee.
SGML specified a syntax for including the markup in documents, as well as one
for separately describing what tags were allowed, and where (the Document Type
Definition (DTD) or schema). This allowed authors to create and use any markup
they wished, selecting tags that made the most sense to them and were named in
their own natural languages. Thus, SGML is properly a meta-language, and many
particular markup languages are derived from it. From the late 80s on, most
substantial new markup languages have been based on SGML system, including for
example TEI and DocBook. SGML was promulgated as an International Standard by
International Organization for Standardization, ISO 8879, in 1986.
SGML found wide acceptance and use in fields with very large-scale documentation
requirements. However, it was generally found to be cumbersome and difficult to
learn, a side effect of attempting to do too much and be too flexible. For
example, SGML made end tags (or start-tags, or even both) optional in certain
contexts, because it was thought that markup would be done manually by
overworked support staff who would appreciate saving keystrokes.
HTML
M HTML
By 1991, it appeared to many that SGML would be limited to commercial and
data-based applications while WYSIWYG tools (which stored documents in
proprietary binary formats) would suffice for other document processing
applications.
The situation changed when Sir Tim Berners-Lee, learning of SGML from co-worker
Anders Berglund and others at CERN, used SGML syntax to create HTML. HTML
resembles other SGML-based tag languages, although it began as simpler than most
and a formal DTD was not developed until later. DeRose argues that HTML's use of
descriptive markup (and SGML in particular) was a major factor in the success of
the Web, because of the flexibility and extensibility that it enabled (other
factors include the notion of URLs and the free distribution of browsers). HTML
is quite likely the most used markup language in the world today.
However, HTML's status as a markup language is disputed by some computer
scientists. The argument for this is that HTML restricts the placement of tags,
requiring them to be either fully nested inside of other tags, or the root tag
of the document. Because of this, these scientists would suggest instead that
HTML is a container language, following a Hierarchical model.
XML
M XML
Another, newer, markup language that is now widely used is XML (Extensible
Markup Language). XML was developed by the World Wide Web Consortium, in a
committee created and chaired by Jon Bosak. The main purpose of XML was to
simplify SGML by focusing on a particular problem — documents on the Internet.
XML remains a meta-language like SGML, allowing users to create any tags needed
(hence "extensible") and then describing those tags and their permitted uses.
XML adoption was helped because every XML document is also an SGML document, and
existing SGML users and software could switch to XML fairly easily. However, XML
eliminated many of the more complex features of SGML, easing learning and
implementation (while increasing markup size and reducing readability). Other
improvements rectified some SGML problems in international settings, and made it
possible to parse and interpret document hierarchy even if no schema is
available.
XML was designed primarily for semi-structured environments such as documents
and publications. However, it appeared to hit a sweet spot between simplicity
and flexibility, and was rapidly adopted for many other uses. XML is now widely
used for communicating data between applications.
XHTML
M XHTML
Since January 2000 all W3C Recommendations for HTML have been based on XML
rather than SGML, using the abbreviation XHTML (Extensible HyperText Markup
Language). The language specification requires that XHTML Web documents must be
well-formed XML documents – this allows for more rigorous and robust documents
while using tags familiar from HTML.
One of the most noticeable differences between HTML and XHTML is the rule that
all tags must be closed: empty HTML tags such as <br> must either be closed with
a regular end-tag, or replaced by a special form: <br /> (the space before the
'/' on the end tag is optional, but frequently used because it enables some
pre-XML Web browsers to accept the tag). Another is that all attribute values in
tags must be quoted. Finally, all tag and attribute names must be lowercase in
order to be valid; HTML, on the other hand, was case-insensitive.
Other XML-based applications
Many XML-based applications now exist, including Resource Description Framework
(RDF), XForms, DocBook, SOAP and the Web Ontology Language (OWL). For a partial
list of these see List of XML markup languages.
Features
A common feature of many markup languages is that they intermix the text of a
document with markup instructions in the same data stream or file. This is not
necessary; it is possible to isolate markup from text content, using pointers,
offsets, IDs, or other methods to co-ordinate the two. Such "standoff markup" is
typical for the internal representations programs use to work with marked-up
documents. However, embedded or "inline" markup is much more common elsewhere.
Here, for example, is a small section of text marked up in HTML:
<h1> Anatidae </h1>
<p>
The family <i>Anatidae</i> includes ducks, geese, and swans,
but <em>not</em> the closely-related screamers.
</p>
The codes enclosed in angle-brackets <like this> are markup instructions (known
as tags), while the text between these instructions is the actual text of the
document. The codes h1, p, and em are examples of structural markup, in that
they describe the intended purpose or meaning of the text they include.
Specifically, h1 means "this is a first-level heading", p means "this is a
paragraph", and em means "this is an emphasized word". A device reading such
structural markup may apply its own rules or styles for presenting it, using
larger type, boldface, indentation, or whatever style it prefers. A tag such as
"h1" might be presented in a large bold typface, for example, or it might be
underscored in a monospaced (typewriter) document – or it might not change the
font at all.
In contrast, the i tag in HTML is an example of presentational markup; it is
generally used to specify a particular characteristic of the text (in this case,
the use of an italic typeface) without specifying the reason for that
appearance.
The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) has published extensive guidelines for how to
encode texts of interest in the humanities and social sciences, developed
through years of international cooperative work. These guidelines are used by
countless projects encoding historical documents, the works of particular
scholars, periods, or genres, and so on.
Alternative usage
While the idea of markup language originated with text documents, there is an
increasing usage of markup languages in areas like vector graphics, web
services, content syndication, and user interfaces. Most of these are XML
applications because it is a clean, well-formatted, and extensible language. The
use of XML has also led to the possibility of combining multiple markup
languages into a single profile, like XHTML+SMIL and XHTML+MathML+SVG
related topics are:
CSS (Cascading Style Sheets)
Lightweight markup language
User interface markup language
Scalable Vector Graphics
Vector graphics markup language
List of markup languages
Programming language (contrast)
YAML (YAML is not a markup language, but it's close)
Wikitext
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